Ebla

First kingdom

First Eblaite Kingdom Ebla
c. 3000 BC–c. 2300 BC
The first kingdom at its greatest extent, including vassals
Capital	Ebla
Common languages	Palaeo-Syrian
Religion	Ancient Levantine religion.[14]
Government	Monarchy
Historical era	Early Bronze Age
• Established	c. 3000 BC
• Disestablished	c. 2300 BC
Succeeded by The second kingdom of Mari
Today part of	Syria Lebanon Turkey

Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states during the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 BC, particularly during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, known as "the age of the archives" after the Ebla tablets.^[12]

Mardikh IIA: The early period between 3000 and 2400 BC is designated "Mardikh IIA".^[12][15] General knowledge about the city's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations.^[16] The first stages of Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC",^[17] and structures that form a part of building "G2",^[18] which was apparently a royal palace built c. 2700 BC.^[9][19] Toward the end of this period, a hundred years' war with Mari started.^[20][21] Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu, who conquered many of Ebla's cities.^[22] In the mid-25th century BC, king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but the state's power declined following his reign.^{[note 2][23]}

Mardikh IIB1: The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c. 2400 BC until c. 2300 BC.^[12] The end of the period is known as the "first destruction",^[24] mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"),^[25] and much of the acropolis.^[26] During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives.^[27] Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.^[28]

The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam's reign,^[29] which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari,^[30] and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il.^[31][32] Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340 BC; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari.^[33][34] Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal.^{[note 3][35]} This Treaty between Ebla and Abarsal is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history.^[36]

First destruction of Ebla

The first destruction occurred c. 2300 BC; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them.^[58] Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited:^[56]

• High (early) dating hypothesis: Giovanni Pettinato supports an early dating for Ebla that would put the destruction at around 2500 BC.^{[note 4][61]} Pettinato, while preferring the date of 2500 BC, later accepted the event could have happened in 2400 BC.^{[note 5][62]} The scholar suggests the city was destroyed in 2400 BC by a Mesopotamian such as Eannatum of Lagash – who boasted of taking tribute from Mari – or Lugalzagesi of Umma, who claimed to have reached the Mediterranean.^{[note 6][62]}
• Akkadian hypothesis: Both kings Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin claimed to have destroyed a town called Ibla.^[63] The discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae, considers Sargon a more likely culprit;^{[note 7][65]} his view is supported by Trevor Bryce,^[66] but rejected by Michael Astour.^{[note 8][70]} The conquest of Armanum and Ebla on the Mediterranean coast by Naram-Sin is mentioned in several of his inscriptions:^[71]

"Whereas, for all time since the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla, the god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty, and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and Ebla."

• Mari's revenge: According to Alfonso Archi and Maria Biga, the destruction happened approximately three or four years after the battle at Terqa.^[56] Archi and Biga say the destruction was caused by Mari^[56] in retaliation for its humiliating defeat at Terqa.^[72][73] This view is supported by Mario Liverani.^[49] Archi says the Mariote king Isqi-Mari destroyed Ebla before ascending the throne of his city.^[74]
• Natural catastrophe: Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the blaze which ended the archive period.^[26] He says the destruction was limited to the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing evidence of looting.^[26] He dates the fire to c. 2290 BC (Middle Chronology).^[75]

Second kingdom

Second Eblaite Kingdom Ebla
c. 2300 BC–c. 2000 BC
Approximate borders of the second kingdom
Capital	Ebla
Common languages	Palaeo-Syrian
Government	Monarchy
Historical era	Bronze Age
• Established	c. 2300 BC
• Disestablished	c. 2000 BC

The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 BC.^[24] The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950 BC, with the 2000 BC dating being a mere formal date.^[76][77] The Akkadians under Sargon of Akkad and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad.^[21] Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period.^[78] By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king.^[79]

A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla,^[66] but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage.^[80] Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites.^[81] A new royal palace was built in the lower town,^[82] and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G".^[26] Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period.^[82]

The second kingdom was attested in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in the mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey.^[83] Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin (c. 2040 BC),^{[note 9]} a ruler of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla.^{[note 10][note 11][90]} The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government,^[91] but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute.^[92] A formal recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire.^[38]

The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century BC,^[38] and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on the acropolis.^[81] Conflict may have preceded the fire;^[81] according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion c. 2030 BC,^[93] led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis.^{[note 12][95]} The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983,^[96] which Astour considers as describing the destruction of the second kingdom.^[97] In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis,^[94] provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city.^[98]

Third kingdom

Third Eblaite Kingdom Ebla
c. 2000 BC–c. 1600 BC
Capital	Ebla
Common languages	Amorite language.[99]
Religion	Ancient Levantine religion
Government	Monarchy
Historical era	Bronze Age
• Established	c. 2000 BC
• Disestablished	c. 1600 BC
Succeeded by Hittites

In the Middle Bronze Age, a third kingdom is designated "Mardikh III"; it is divided into periods "A" (c. 2000–1800 BC) and "B" (c. 1800–1600 BC).^[24] In period "A", Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city.^[100] The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low city and one for the acropolis.^[100] The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built.^[101][102] Further construction took place in period "B".^[101]

Middle Bronze I - Mardikh IIIA

The first known king of the third kingdom is Ibbit-Lim,^[103] who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla.^{[note 13][87]} A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla.^[87][103] The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time.^[105]

• Meki (king) of Ebla Ibbit-Lim, son of Igrish-Kheb

Middle Bronze II - Mardikh IIIB

During Middle Bronze IIA (MB IIA), Ebla Mardikh IIIB1 became a vassal of Yamhad, an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo.^[106][107]

Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad's reign.^[101] One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya, who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre, indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla.^[108] The city was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty.^[109][110]

In Middle Bronze IIB (MB IIB), the Great Kingdom of Yamhad under which Ebla Mardikh IIIB2 was a vassal declined due to climate change and raiding attacks by the Hittites (Hattusili I and Mursili I). Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Mursili I in about 1600 BC.^[111] Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla;^[112] a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace "Q".^[112][113] Alternatively, Maratewari could well be the last king according to Archi,^[114] who also argued that the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements.^[94]

Hypogeum G4

The tomb found in the royal palace "G" is designated hypogeum "G4"; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu.^[138] The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains.^[139] It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or was built as a cenotaph.^[139]

Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters.^[139] The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors.^[139] Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west–east oriented.^[140] The western room (L.5762) is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west–east oriented.^[141] Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault.^[139][140]

Western palace tombs

The tombs were found under the floor of Building Q, which was built in the Isin-Larsa period.^[142]

• The tomb of the princess: dating to c. 1800 BC, it is the oldest and smallest of the third kingdom tombs found.^[137][143] Excavated in 1978,^[143] it contained the remains of a young woman.^[144] The dromos is an enlargement of a natural cave with steps partially cut in the bedrock and partially paved with stones.^[145] The tomb is the only one not pillaged;^[146] it contained precious jewels and funerary objects.^[147]
• The tomb of the cisterns: this tomb is the most damaged in the necropolis.^[137] It consists of a double room burial; the earliest, (Q79A), was built at the same period of the tomb of the princess, and was badly damaged when the tomb was reused, and a dromos was built in the place of Q79A toward the end of the 17th century BC (leading to the founding of burial Q79B).^[145] This was probably the resting place of a king; a club (a symbol of royal power) was discovered in Q79A.^[145]
• The tomb of the lord of the goats: the largest in the necropolis, it includes two depositional chambers and is reached through a vertical shaft.^[145] The recovered body is not identified; archaeologists call it "the Lord of the Goats" after one of the grave goods, a throne decorated with bronze goat heads.^[148] It could be king Immeya; a silver cup inscribed with his name was among the grave goods.^[149]

Administrative divisions

Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla.^[37] The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples.^[152] Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city).^[152] The villages and towns under the central authority were either ruled directly from the capital,^[152] or had appointed officials.^[152] The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions.^[153]

• Lugal: while in Mesopotamia a lugal designated a king, in Ebla it designated a governor who was directly under the authority of the capital.^[154] The nature of this title as part of Eblaite bureaucracy is ambiguous; each lugal was under the authority of the grand vizier,^[155] and the bearers ruled cities directly under the authority of the capital and they all brought goods to be kept in Ebla's storehouses.^[152] Pettinato counted 14 different lugals in the Eblaite administrative texts and deduced that the kingdom was divided into fourteen departments; two of them in the capital itself and the remaining twelve spanned the rest of the kingdom.^[156]
• Ugula: the title is translated as superintendent; some ugulas were independent rulers and some represented the highest authority of a tribal group.^[157] Many cities had an appointed ugula as their head of administration such as the city of Darum.^[152]

Chora

The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the "chora" by archaeologists.^[12][158] Regions under direct control of the king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals.^[158]

Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital.^[12] It includes the cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual),^{[note 16]} and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered.^[160] The chora spans around 3000 km²; from west to east it includes the plains east of Jabal Zawiya, the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain and mount Shabīth.^[161] Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as al-Ghab, al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural affinity with the chora.^[161]