Lacquerware

Gallery

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  Red lacquer wood bowl from the Chinese Hemudu culture dated to 4000–5000 BC, the oldest such piece ever found.
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  Coffin from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
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  Lacquer dou-vessel from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
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  Lacquerware box, Warring States period, Henan Provincial Museum
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  Painted Lacquered Wood Mandarin Duck-shaped Case, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
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  Lacquered Shield, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng
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  Lacquered birdman (羽人) figure on a toad stand, Chu kingdom, Warring States period
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  Lacquer box in shape of pigs, Chu kingdom, Warring States
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  Lacquerware box from the Jingmen Tomb (荊門楚墓; Jīngmén chǔ mù) of the State of Chu (704–223 BC)
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  Openwork lacquered screen with animal designs, Wangshan Tomb, Chu kingdom, Warring States period
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  Details on the Chu lacquerware box of the Jingmen Tomb, depicting men wearing precursors to Hanfu (i.e. traditional silk dress) and riding in a two-horsed chariot
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  Zhuque dou-vessel, State of Chu Warring States,
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  Painted lacquer hu-jar with dragon-shaped handles, Warring States period
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  Lacquer box of phoenix pattern, Warring States era, Hubei Museum
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  Painted lacquer flat flask with coiled serpents, Warring States era
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  Lacquered winged goblet (zh:羽觞), also known as "eared" or flanged cup (耳杯) from Warring States era
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  Lacquered flanged cup with cloud designs from Warring States, Jingzhou Museum, Hubei
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  Lacquered winged cup from Warring States with geometric design, Henan Provincial Museum
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  Lacquer phoenix cup, state of Chu, Warring States
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  Lacquer phoenix cup, state of Chu, Warring States
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  Lacquer box incised with "Panyu" in seal script, Qin dynasty era, Guangzhou City Museum
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  "Eared" or flanged cup (耳杯), Qin-Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Lacquered flask, Qin-Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Pig-shaped lacquered case, Qin-Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Han dynasty lacquerware unearthed at Mawangdui, 2nd century BC
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  Lacquerware box from Mawangdui, Han dynasty.
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  Lacquerware screen from Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Lacquer dish, Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Inkstone and lacquer case, Zhou Family Tomb (周氏墓), Linyi, Shandong, Western Han dynasty
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  Lacquer dish with cloud-dragon design, Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Lacquer Wine-Cup Container and wine cup set, Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Western Han dynasty Lacquered flanged cup, known as winged goblet (zh:羽觞) or "eared cup"(耳杯) of Prince of Tianchang
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  Lacquered pottery flanged or eared cup, Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Lacquered flanged cup, known as winged goblet (zh:羽觞), Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Lacquered zun, Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Western Han dynasty lacquer bowl
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  Lacquer flanged cups and dishes from Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Lacquered table, Western Han dynasty, Anhui Provincial Museum
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  Lacquerware in the shape of a man's head, Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD), Yunnan Provincial Museum, Kunming
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  Lacquer dressing case painted with dragon pattern, Chuzhou, Anhui, Han dynasty
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  Lacquered case, Han dynasty, Hubei Provincial Museum
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  Lacquerware coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Second coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Third coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty
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  Lacquerware pot from Mawangdui Tomb.
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  Lacquered chest from Mawangdui.
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  Lacquerware flanged drinking vessels and plates from the Mawangdui Tomb.
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  Lacquerware screen from the tomb of Zhao Mo, King of Nanyue (reconstruction)
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  Lidded cosmetic box, late Western Han dynasty, about 100 BC – 25 AD
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  Lacquered cosmetic box, late Western Han dynasty
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  Oval Lidded Cosmetic Box (Duoyuan He) with Scrolling Clouds, Animals, and Birds, late Western Han dynasty
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  Chinese painted artwork on the lacquered basket of Lelang, a region of the Han dynasty.
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  Painted lacquerware dish from the tomb of Zhu Ran (182–249 AD) in Anhui province, showing figures wearing Hanfu, Eastern Wu, Three Kingdoms period.
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  Painted lacquerware tray from the tomb of Zhu Ran, Three Kingdoms period.
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  Black lacquered clogs from the tomb of Zhu Ran.
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  Painted lacquerware dish from the tomb of Zhu Ran, Three Kingdoms period.
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  Lacquered mirror with bronze and silver inlays, Tang dynasty
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  Black lacquered mirror back with four phoenixes, Tang dynasty
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  Lacquer mirror box with inlays for a Mirror, Tang - Song dynasty
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  Bowl in shape of a flower blossom, Song dynasty
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  Cup with Sword-Pommel Pattern, Song dynasty
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  Box with Pommel Scroll design, Song dynasty
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  Lacquered Buddhist abbot, Song dynasty
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  Black lacquered plum-blossom-shaped cup, Song dynasty
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  Black lacquer on wood core with wickerwork panels, Song dynasty
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  Tablescreen with Calligraphy of Sima Guang's Family Instructions, Song dynasty
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  Pan in the Form of a Plum Blossom with Birds and Flowers, Late Song dynasty
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  Black lacquered box with painted figures, Late Song dynasty
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  A lacquered table of the Yuan dynasty, 14th century, with an inlaid mother-of-pearl decoration of a tree
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  Carved lacquer box with the "Sword-Pommel Pattern", Yuan dynasty (1279–1368)
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  Black lacquer box with pearl inlays, late Yuan to early Ming dynasty.
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  Lacquer Dish with garden scene, Early Ming dynasty
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  Box, Ming dynasty, Yongle era (1403–1424)
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  Lacquer Box with pommel scroll design, Ming dynasty
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  Octagonal food box with pommel scrolls, Ming dynasty
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  Carved lacquer stem cup with the "Sword-Pommel Pattern", mid-Ming dynasty
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  Lacquer box with dragon motifs and inlays, Ming dynasty
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  Covered box with dragon motif, Ming dynassty, Jiajing era, 1522-1566 AD
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  Carved red lacquer on wood core, Ming dynasty
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  Red Lacquer Wardrobes Inlaid with Various Treasures, Ming dynasty
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  Lacquer cabinet with dragon and cloud motifs, from Wanli era, Ming dynasty
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  Detail of lacquer cabinet with dragon and cloud motifs, Ming dynasty
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  Black lacquered medicine cabinet with dragon patterns from Wanli era, Ming dynasty.
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  Tray with dragons, Ming dynasty.
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  Lacquer table-screen
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  Late Ming - Early Qing dynasty lacquered Case
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  Square dish, Qing dynasty, Kangxi era (1662–1722)
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  Carved lacquer cup with a poem composed by the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796), Qing dynasty
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  Carved lacquer calabash-bottle, Qing dynasty
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  Lacquered Scripture Box, Qing dynasty
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  Coromandel lacquer folding screen with a courtly progress in lacquer, mother of pearl, tortoiseshell and gold, Qing dynasty, 1750–1800
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  Carved lacquer ruyi, Qing dynasty
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  Lacquer canopy bed, Qing dynasty
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  Lacquer canopy bed, Qing dynasty
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  Lacquer table and chairs, Qing dynasty
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  Lacquered armor of the Dali Kingdom
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  Qing dynasty Lacquered Box
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  Woven Bamboo Lacquer Fruit Case, Qing dynasty
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  Qing dynasty Lacquered Box
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  Qing dynasty carved lacquer snuff bottle.
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  Carved lacquer chair, Qing dynasty
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  Lacquerware set by the Yi people.

History and regional production

Primitive lacquer was used in Japan as early as 12,600 BC, during the Jōmon period.^[2]

Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the Jōmon period. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in Hokkaido.^[21] These objects were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period (approx. 9,000 years ago)^[2][4][5] Japanese lacquering technology may have been invented by the Jōmon. They learned to refine urushi (poison oak sap) – the process taking several months. Iron oxide (colcothar) and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) were used for producing red lacquer.^[22] Lacquer was used both on pottery, and on different types of wooden items. In some cases, burial clothes for the dead were also lacquered.^[22] Many lacquered objects have turned up during the Early Jōmon period; this indicates that this was an established part of Jōmon culture.^[22] Experts are divided on whether Jōmon lacquer was derived from Chinese techniques, or invented independently. For example, Mark Hudson believes that “Jomon lacquer technology was developed independently in Japan rather than being introduced from China as once believed”.^[23][22]

During the Asuka and Nara periods, between the 7th and 8th centuries, Chinese lacquer art forms were imported to Japan.

In the Heian period (794–1185), various Maki-e techniques characteristic of Japanese lacquerware were developed. While the method of drawing designs with a brush by dissolving gold powder in lacquer is a common technique in other countries, the method of drawing designs with lacquer and then sprinkling gold, silver, or copper powder of various sizes and shapes on top to polish them was developed in Japan. This made it possible to make the gold and silver of lacquerware brighter than before.^[20]

In the Kamakura period (1185–1333), carved lacquer from the Song dynasty of China was imported to Japan. However, many Japanese lacquer craftsmen did not adopt the Chinese method of depositing lacquer and then carving it; instead, they created Kamakurabori, a method of carving wood and then coating lacquer.^[24]

Japanese lacquerware was abundantly exported to China where the Ming and Qing rulers generally described Japanese lacquerwares as " foreign lacquer " ( yangqi ). Yang Ming, and famous lacquer man Zhejiang, made annotations for A Record of Decoration with Lacquer, ... People of the Ming dynasty once recorded: “The decoration art with lacquer coated with gold originated (maki-e) from Japan". Yang in the reign of Xuande of the Ming dynasty made a trip to Japan to study Japanese techniques, and a Japanese visited a Chinese imperial workshop in Beijing during the Ming dynasty. It is well documented that the Yongzheng Emperor had a formidable interest in Japanese lacquer, yangqi, and this was reflected in many of the works produced in the Imperial workshops during his reign.^{[25][26][27][28][29]} In the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568–1600) also made its way into Colonial Mexico (Manila Galleons) and Europe by Nanban trade. Japanese lacquerware attracted European aristocrats and missionaries from Europe, and western style chests and church furniture were exported in response to their requests.^[30][31][32]

The Edo period (1603–1868) saw an increase in the focused cultivation of lacquer trees and the development of the techniques used. In the 18th century colored lacquers came into wider use. With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. From the middle of the Edo period, inro became popular as men's accessories, and wealthy merchants of the chōnin class and samurai class collected inro of high aesthetic value, precisely designed with lacquer.^[33][34] Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware and their collections are now often exhibited in the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles.^[20]

In the Meiji period (1868–1912), Richly-decorated lacquerwares in original designs were popular domestically, and even more so with Western buyers during this period of European and American fascination with Japanese art. Shibata Zeshin's lacquer work was especially popular.^[35] In addition, lacquerware called Shibayama, which was created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, coral, tortoise shell and ceramics, and reached its peak during this period. Lacquerware called Somada, which was created in the Edo period and characterized by regular patterns of finely cut seashells, gold leaf and silver leaf, also became popular during this period.^[36] The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japan's lacquers and other decorative arts at a succession of world's fairs.^[37][38] Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world.^[39]

Today, the Japanese government has designated excellent lacquer artists as Living National Treasures and is encouraging them to make lacquerware. Lacquerware is produced throughout the Japanese archipelago, with many regional techniques and variations. Besides the very old Kamakura tradition mentioned above (and still alive today), the port town of Wajima provides a good example of regional lacquerware. Wajima-nuri, dating back to the 16th century, is characterized by use of the elm-like Japanese zelkova (keyaki 欅), powdered earth, and delicate features formed from cloth. (See the Japanese article, 輪島塗. A more complete list of regional lacquer traditions is available in the Japanese article.)

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  Tiered Stand with Designs Alluding to The Tale of Genji, by Hon'ami Kōetsu, 17th century
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  Reading Stand with Mount Yoshino, Edo period, 18th century
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  Lacquered exterior of wakizashi Fusamune, Edo period, 18th century
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  Maki-e Fuji Tagonoura, by Shibata Zeshin, Meiji period, 1872
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  Maki-e Writing-table, by Shirayama Shosai, Meiji period, 19th century, Khalili Collection of Japanese Art
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  by Living National Treasure Gonroku Matsuda, Showa period, 1960

Ryukyuan lacquerware

Ryukyuan lacquerware is one of the chief artistic products of the Ryukyu Islands (today Okinawa Prefecture of Japan); it is quite distinct from the lacquerware found among the surrounding cultures. Nevertheless, Chinese and Japanese influences are present.

History

The earliest fragments of lacquerware basketry found in Bagan dates back to the 13th century. Evidence for older lacquerware in Bagan remains inconclusive.^[41]

Bayinnaung's conquest and subjugation in 1555–1562 of Manipur, Bhamo, Zinme (Chiang Mai), Linzin (Lan Xang), and up the Taping and Shweli rivers in the direction of Yunnan brought back large numbers of skilled craftsmen into Burma. It is thought that the finer sort of Burmese lacquerware, called Yun, was introduced during this period by imported artisans belonging to the Yun or Northern Thai people of the Chiang Mai region.^[42]

Manufacture and design

Lacquer vessels, boxes and trays have a coiled or woven bamboo-strip base often mixed with horsehair. The thitsee may be mixed with ashes or sawdust to form a putty-like substance called thayo which can be sculpted. The object is coated layer upon layer with thitsee and thayo to make a smooth surface, polished and engraved with intricate designs, commonly using red, green and yellow colors on a red or black background. Shwezawa is a distinctive form in its use of gold leaf to fill in the designs on a black background.^[43][44]

Palace scenes, scenes from the Jataka tales, and the signs of the Burmese Zodiac are popular designs and some vessels may be encrusted with glass mosaic or semi-precious stones in gold relief.^[44] The objects are all handmade and the designs and engraving done free-hand. It may take three to four months to finish a small vessel but perhaps over a year for a larger piece. The finished product is a result of teamwork and not crafted by a single person.^[43]

Forms

The most distinctive vessel is probably a rice bowl on a stem with a spired lid for monks called hsun ok. Lahpet ok is a shallow dish with a lid and has a number of compartments for serving lahpet (pickled tea) with its various accompaniments. Stackable tiffin carriers fastened with a single handle or hsun gyaink are usually plain red or black. Daunglan are low tables for meals and may be simple broad based or have three curved feet in animal or floral designs with a lid. Water carafes or yeidagaung with a cup doubling as a lid, and vases are also among lacquerware still in use in many monasteries.^[43][44]

Various round boxes with lids, small and large, are known as yun-it including ones for paan called kun-it (Burmese: ကွမ်းအစ်; betel boxes). Yun titta are rectangular boxes for storing various articles including peisa or palm leaf manuscripts when they are called sadaik titta. Pedestal dishes or small trays with a stem with or without a lid are known as kalat for serving delicacies or offering flowers to royalty or the Buddha. Theatrical troupes and musicians have their lacquerware in costumes, masks, head-dresses, and musical instruments, some of them stored and carried in lacquer trunks.^[44] Boxes in the shape of a pumpkin or a bird such as the owl, which is believed to bring luck, or the hintha (Brahminy duck) are common too. Screens and small polygonal tables are also made for the tourist trade today.

Industry

Bagan is the major centre for the lacquerware industry where the handicraft has been established for nearly two centuries, and still practiced in the traditional manner. Here a government school of lacquerware was founded in the 1920s. Since plastics, porcelain and metal have superseded lacquer in most everyday utensils, it is today manufactured in large workshops mainly for tourists who come to see the ancient temples of Bagan. At the village of Kyaukka near Monywa in the Chindwin valley, however, sturdy lacquer utensils are still produced for everyday use mainly in plain black.^[43]

A decline in the number of visitors combined with the cost of resin, which has seen a 40-fold rise in 15 years, has led to the closure of over two-thirds of more than 200 lacquerware workshops in Bagan.^[45]